Ubuntu is a traditional African philosophy centered on the idea of shared humanity, interconnectedness, and communal well-being. The term ubuntu (from Nguni Bantu languages like Zulu and Xhosa) literally means “humanness” or “humanity toward others” .

It is often encapsulated in the proverb “umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu” – commonly translated as “a person is a person through other people” .

In essence, Ubuntu holds that an individual’s identity and dignity are rooted in their relationships with the broader community.

This article explores Ubuntu’s origins and development, its core principles and everyday expressions, key thinkers who have shaped it, and a comparison between Ubuntu and Western philosophical traditions.

Origins and Historical Development of Ubuntu

Ubuntu has deep roots in sub-Saharan Africa, particularly in Bantu-speaking cultures. Variations of the concept exist across many African societies under different names – for example, botho in Sesotho, hunhu in Shona, and utu in Swahili – all conveying the idea of our shared human essence.

As an oral tradition, Ubuntu guided community life for centuries before it was discussed in written philosophy. African theologian John S. Mbiti captured its spirit in 1969 with the phrase: “I am because we are, and since we are, therefore I am” , contrasting the communal African notion of personhood with Western individualism.

In written literature, the idea of Ubuntu can be traced back at least to the mid-19th century , but it remained largely implicit in stories and proverbs. Systematic discourse on Ubuntu as a philosophy began to emerge in the 20th century.

Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange and Tommie M. Samkange’s 1980 book Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A Zimbabwean Indigenous Political Philosophy was one of the first works to explicitly frame Ubuntu as a guiding philosophy for nation-building .

They articulated three maxims of Ubuntu:

• “To be human is to affirm one’s humanity by recognising the humanity of others and, on that basis, establish respectful human relations with them” ;

• Choosing to preserve life over pursuing wealth if ever faced with that choice ; and

• Tthe idea that a leader’s power and authority derive from the will of the people, reflecting a deeply ingrained communal governance principle.

These maxims rooted Ubuntu in ethical humanism and social justice, linking ancient values to modern political ideals.Ubuntu gained global attention in the early 1990s during South Africa’s transition from apartheid to democracy.

Post Apartheid Ubuntu

In the post-apartheid era, Ubuntu was heralded as a foundational philosophy for the new South Africa . From 1993–1995, as South Africa prepared for democracy, Ubuntu became closely associated with the proverb “umuntu ngumuntu ngabantu”, symbolizing the nation’s emphasis on reconciliation and community values .

Leaders like Archbishop Desmond Tutu, President Nelson Mandela, and President Thabo Mbeki invoked Ubuntu to promote healing, unity, and a “humanist ideology upon which the new democratic South Africa is constructed” .

For instance, the 1996 Truth and Reconciliation Commission (chaired by Tutu) embodied Ubuntu by favoring forgiveness and restorative justice over retribution, granting amnesty to those who confessed their wrongs in order to restore social harmony.

Through these high-profile applications, Ubuntu moved from village life to center stage in national discourse, illustrating its adaptability and power as both an ancient ethos and a modern ideology.

Core Principles and Values of Ubuntu

At its core, Ubuntu is a value system that emphasises our shared humanity and interdependence. A person with ubuntu recognizes that they are inextricably bound to others –

Some of the fundamental principles and values associated with Ubuntu include:

• Interconnectedness and Community – Ubuntu stresses that individuals exist in a network of relationships. One’s identity (“personhood”) is defined through interaction with others and participation in community . As a South African saying goes, “a person is a person through other people,” highlighting that personal fulfillment is achieved through communal bonds, not in isolation.

  
  

• Humanity and Human Dignity (Humanness) – The term ubuntu itself means humanity. It calls for treating others with respect, compassion, and recognising their inherent dignity. To have ubuntu is to exhibit the highest virtues of human character. For example, showing empathy, kindness, generosity, and forgiveness are seen as signs of ubuntu . A person living with ubuntu is often described as fully realizing their “human excellence”.

• Communalism and Shared Responsibility – Ubuntu upholds communal values over individual gain. It is “a philosophy that supports collectivism over individualism” . This means members of a community share benefits and burdens so that no one is left behind . Personal wealth or success is meaningful only if it contributes to the well-being of others. There is a strong sense of common responsibility: “We are our brother’s (and sister’s) keeper.”

• Reciprocity, Cooperation, and Generosity – In an Ubuntu ethic, doing good for others is not just charity but an obligation. Acts of hospitality and generosity are social norms. People are expected to share with and care for one another. As one scholar explains, Ubuntu includes virtues like “compassion, generosity, honesty, magnanimity, empathy, understanding, forgiveness, and the ability to share,” which are qualities of a truly humane person . There is an understanding that one’s humanity is enriched by giving and by the gratitude and well-being of others.

• Harmony and Conflict Resolution – Maintaining social harmony is a key goal. Ubuntu favors restorative approaches to justice and conflict. Wrongdoings are ideally corrected through reconciliation, dialogue, and forgiveness rather than punishment. The focus is on restoring balance in relationships and the community. Desmond Tutu often emphasized that “when others are humiliated or oppressed, we are all diminished”, underscoring that harmony is restored by lifting people up and rebuilding relationships rather than exacting revenge .

As philosopher Augustine Shutte put it, “Our deepest moral obligation is to become more fully human, and this means entering more and more deeply into community with others.

So although the goal is personal fulfillment, selfishness is excluded.” . In Ubuntu, personal good and communal good are seen as inseparable; ethical behavior is that which strengthens the community and affirms the humanity of all its members.

Ubuntu in Everyday Life and Societal Structures

Ubuntu is not just an abstract philosophy – it is lived and expressed in the daily practices and social structures of many African communities. Everyday life under Ubuntu is characterized by cooperation, mutual aid, and a sense of togetherness:

• Hospitality and Caring for Strangers: In traditional African settings, welcoming strangers and travelers is a common practice reflecting Ubuntu. Nelson Mandela illustrated this with a story: “A traveller through a country would stop at a village and he didn’t have to ask for food or for water. … once he stops, the people give him food and attend him. That is one aspect of Ubuntu.” . Such hospitality is offered unconditionally, without expecting payment or reward. Likewise, among the Shona and Ndebele people, it was customary to offer food, water, and shelter to strangers in need, seeing the sustenance of others’ lives as “as important as our own” . This stands in contrast to many Western norms, where a home is viewed as private property and unsolicited entry is seen as trespassing . In an Ubuntu-oriented community, the default is to help and welcome others, reflecting the belief in a shared humanity.

• Collective Child-Rearing and Family: The proverb “it takes a village to raise a child” rings true in societies guided by Ubuntu. Child-rearing is often a communal responsibility – parents, extended family, neighbors, and elders all partake in guiding and caring for children. This collective upbringing ensures that children learn respect and empathy from the whole community. For instance, it’s common in many African communities for adults to discipline or feed each other’s children, reinforcing that every child is our child. Such collective child-rearing practices, where the upbringing of the young is viewed as a communal duty, exemplify Ubuntu’s principle of shared care and support . Children grow up with a strong sense of belonging and learn early the values of respect, cooperation, and solidarity.

• Communal Work and Mutual Aid: Traditional African life often involves communal labor for mutual benefit. Farming, building homes, or preparing for ceremonies may be done by community members together. This can take the form of work parties where everyone contributes labor to help one family today, and tomorrow another family – ensuring everyone’s needs are met. The underlying ethic is that by helping others, you help yourself because the community’s strength is your own. Resources and labor are pooled rather than hoarded by individuals . This collectivist ethos extends to sharing food, tools, and knowledge. During hardships, such as poor harvests, families support each other so that no one starves – reflecting Ubuntu’s mandate that no member of the community should be left to suffer alone.

• Respect for Elders and Community Consensus: Ubuntu cultures place great respect on elders and value inclusive decision-making. Elders are seen as wisdom-keepers and are often consulted on important matters. Village councils or community forums (imbizo, baraza, etc.) bring people together to discuss issues openly until a consensus is reached, rather than simply voting or having a single leader dictate terms. This participatory process is rooted in the Ubuntu principle that every voice matters and that unity is achieved by hearing each other out. Leadership, in this context, is often viewed as stewardship. A chief or leader is expected to be a servant of the people rather than an autocrat, embodying the idea that “the king owes his status, including all the powers associated with it, to the will of the people under him” . Thus, governance traditionally had an accountability to the community built in.

• Restorative Justice and Reconciliation: In legal or moral conflicts, many African communities historically favored reconciliation practices. Instead of punitive justice, mechanisms like community courts or mediation by elders were used to restore harmony. A modern example was post-genocide Rwanda’s gacaca community courts, which drew on principles similar to Ubuntu by focusing on truth-telling, forgiveness, and reintegration of offenders into society . In South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, perpetrators of apartheid-era crimes who fully confessed and sought forgiveness were not punished with prison, but rather were publicly forgiven – a process aimed at healing the community as a whole . These practices demonstrate Ubuntu’s focus on social repair over retribution, viewing justice as a means to mend broken relationships so that the community can move forward together.

A Way of Life

In all these examples, Ubuntu is essentially a “way of life” . It manifests in how people greet each other (warmly and acknowledging the other’s worth), how they celebrate together in rituals and ceremonies, and how they collectively mourn and support one another in times of grief. The philosophy’s presence in daily life creates a strong social fabric: one marked by empathy, shared joy and pain, and mutual responsibility. Even in contemporary urban settings, the spirit of Ubuntu is invoked to encourage community programs, neighborly support, and social solidarity. It remains a touchstone of African cultural identity, reminding people that

Philosophers and Thought Leaders Associated with Ubuntu

Ubuntu, as both an indigenous philosophy and a modern ethical framework, has been shaped and articulated by numerous African philosophers, leaders, and scholars:

• John S. Mbiti (1931–2019): A Kenyan theologian and philosopher, Mbiti is often cited for articulating the communal ontology of African thought. His famous saying, “I am because we are; and since we are, therefore I am,” encapsulates the essence of Ubuntu’s view of personhood . Mbiti’s work in African Religions and Philosophy (1969) highlighted how deeply traditional African worldviews prize community and interconnected existence.

• Stanlake J. W. T. Samkange (1922–1988): A Zimbabwean historian and philosopher, Samkange (along with his wife Tommie) was among the first to put Ubuntu in writing as a philosophical and political concept. In Hunhuism or Ubuntuism (1980), they outlined fundamental principles (the “maxims” of Ubuntu) that influenced thinking on African humanism and governance . Samkange argued that just as Western societies draw on the philosophies of their ancestors, Africans should systematize and practice the wisdom of Ubuntu.

• Desmond Tutu (1931–2021): The South African Anglican Archbishop and Nobel Peace Prize laureate is often called the “father of Ubuntu theology.” Tutu believed that Ubuntu was not only an African ethic but also a theological truth about our common creation. In his 1999 book No Future Without Forgiveness, which reflects on the Truth and Reconciliation process, Tutu defines Ubuntu as the essence of being human: “You can’t exist as a human being in isolation… You are connected and what you do affects the whole world. When you do well, it spreads out; it is for the whole of humanity.” . He often explained that a person with Ubuntu “is open and available to others, affirming of others” and does not feel threatened by others’ goodness, because they know “they belong in a greater whole” . Tutu’s leadership in post-apartheid reconciliation gave Ubuntu global visibility as a principle of social healing.

• Nelson Mandela (1918–2013): As the first president of democratic South Africa, Mandela frequently invoked Ubuntu as a guiding ideal for the nation. He illustrated Ubuntu through anecdotes (such as the traveler story mentioned earlier) and emphasized its role in fostering reconciliation after decades of division . Mandela saw Ubuntu as “the oneness of humanity” – a recognition that “we are all bound together in ways that are invisible to the eye”, as he defined in a 2006 video and which even international figures like Barack Obama echoed at Mandela’s memorial . Mandela’s moral authority and his embodiment of forgiveness were often seen as living examples of Ubuntu in action.

• Mogobe Bernard Ramose (b. 1947): A South African philosopher, Ramose is a seminal academic voice on Ubuntu. In his work African Philosophy Through Ubuntu (1999), he describes Ubuntu as the “root” of African philosophy and equates it to “humaneness” . Ramose argues that Ubuntu is both a worldview and an ethical system, one that survived colonial oppression and offers an alternative to Western philosophical paradigms. He famously stated that “one is enjoined, yes, commanded as it were, to actually become a human being” – meaning that being born biologically human is not enough; one must actively live out the virtues of Ubuntu to earn the status of a true human being in the moral sense. Ramose’s scholarship has been influential in academic discussions, framing Ubuntu as a comprehensive philosophy with its own metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics.

• Michael Onyebuchi Eze: A Nigerian-born philosopher and intellectual historian, Eze has critically examined Ubuntu in contemporary discourse. He has highlighted how Ubuntu operates as both an indigenous ethic and a postcolonial critique. Writing for UNESCO, Eze notes that Ubuntu “encapsulates all the qualities of a respected member of society” (such as honesty, empathy, generosity) and also serves as “a critique of colonialist doctrine” – a counter-narrative to the dehumanization inherent in colonialism . Eze’s work (e.g., Intellectual History of Ubuntu) traces how the concept evolved over time and cautions against overly romanticizing or homogenizing it. He argues for understanding Ubuntu in its specific historical and cultural contexts while acknowledging its pan-African resonance.

• Thaddeus Metz: An American philosopher who has worked extensively in South Africa, Metz has engaged with Ubuntu as an analytic philosopher, formulating it as a viable moral theory. In one of his influential papers, he sought a basic principle of Ubuntu ethics and proposed that “an action is right just insofar as it promotes shared identity among people grounded on good-will; an action is wrong to the extent that it fails to do so”. Metz’s interpretations, while not from an indigenous perspective, have helped bring Ubuntu into dialogue with Western ethics and demonstrated its philosophical robustness.

• Augustine Shutte (1938–2016): A South African theologian/philosopher, Shutte was one of the early academics to engage seriously with Ubuntu’s philosophical implications in the 1990s. As noted earlier, he emphasized the moral imperative of community, asserting that personal fulfillment must be achieved through communal life, not selfish pursuits . Shutte’s book Ubuntu: An Ethic for a New South Africa (2001) helped articulate how Ubuntu values could guide the country’s moral development after apartheid.

Other notable figures include Fainos Mangena (Zimbabwean philosopher who described a “common moral position” from Ubuntu ), Christian B. N. Gade (Danish scholar who traced the historical development of Ubuntu discourse ), and Yvonne Mokgoro (a South African Constitutional Court Justice who incorporated Ubuntu principles into legal reasoning).

Beyond Academia

Even beyond academia, the essence of Ubuntu has been championed by community leaders, writers, and activists across Africa. Its philosophy has inspired projects in education, conflict resolution, and even computing (e.g. the Ubuntu Linux operating system was named to reflect the “community-driven” spirit).

Ubuntu in Politics and Reconciliation

Ubuntu’s influence extends profoundly into political thought and practices, especially in Africa’s efforts to build inclusive, just societies. Post-apartheid South Africa is a prime example of Ubuntu’s principles applied to nation-building.

During the transition in the mid-1990s, the country faced the challenge of addressing past injustices while uniting a fractured population. Ubuntu provided a moral framework to pursue restorative justice and reconciliation instead of vengeance.

Desmond Tutu, heading the Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) in 1996, explicitly invoked Ubuntu as the rationale for the commission’s approach: perpetrators of political crimes could be forgiven and reintegrated if they truthfully acknowledged their wrongdoing and sought to repair the harm . This policy was controversial to some, yet it averted possible cycles of retributive violence and allowed South Africa to move forward without massive bloodshed.

Tutu explained that punishing the oppressors while ignoring their humanity would “violate Ubuntu,” which seeks to restore the dignity of both victim and oppressor through healing and forgiveness .

Into Constitution

Ubuntu also found its way into the new South African legal and constitutional order. The 1993 Interim Constitution and the 1996 Constitution did not explicitly mention “Ubuntu” by name, but the spirit of Ubuntu underlies their emphasis on human dignity, equality, and community.

In landmark judgments, South African judges referenced Ubuntu as a value of the society. For example, in the 1995 case S v Makwanyane, which abolished the death penalty, Justice Yvonne Mokgoro wrote about Ubuntu as part of the constitutional value of humane justice, emphasizing reconciliation over retribution in line with African values of mercy and community.

Ubuntu thus has been recognized as part of the jurisprudence of the new South Africa, guiding interpretations of justice and rights that differ from strictly individualistic doctrines.

Political rhetoric in South Africa frequently alluded to Ubuntu. Nelson Mandela urged South Africans to embody Ubuntu by working together to improve their communities, saying that individual ambition must be balanced with helping those around us to rise .

Thabo Mbeki’s vision of an “African Renaissance” – a revival of African culture and values in governance – also paralleled Ubuntu ideals, calling for unity, mutual respect, and an end to the atomistic individualism that colonialism often promoted. Even in drafting policies or community programs, leaders would invoke Ubuntu to underline the importance of consultation, collective ownership, and social solidarity in achieving development goals.

Elsewhere in Africa

Beyond South Africa, Ubuntu-like concepts in politics have emerged elsewhere in Africa.

In Zimbabwe, as noted, Samkange championed Ubuntu (hunhu) as a guiding philosophy for the newly independent nation in 1980 , emphasizing respect for every individual’s life and a people-centered leadership.

Unfortunately, political developments (such as the conflict in Matabeleland in the 1980s) showed a gap between rhetoric and practice . In Rwanda after the 1994 genocide, principles resonant with Ubuntu were applied in the traditional gacaca courts for reconciliation . Communities prioritized restoring relationships and healing over purely punitive measures.

In Ubuntu, many African leaders found a narrative of African humanism that countered colonial-era depictions of African societies as “less civilized.” It became a source of political ethics – arguing that African nations could build modern states grounded not only in imported Western ideologies, but also in indigenous values of community and humanity .

Internationally, Ubuntu’s message has even entered global political dialogue. For instance, when eulogizing Nelson Mandela, U.S. President Barack Obama spoke of Ubuntu, explaining it as the idea

This reflects how Ubuntu has been recognized as a universal message of human interdependence, relevant beyond its African origins.

However, while Ubuntu can inspire broad humanistic values, it remains most powerful in contexts where community cohesion and reconciliation are immediate challenges. In such contexts – post-conflict healing, nation-building, fighting inequality – Ubuntu offers a vocabulary of unity and an ethical imperative to put human welfare at the center of policy.

Ubuntu and Western Philosophy: A Comparison

Ubuntu stands in many ways as a contrast to dominant themes in Western philosophical traditions. Whereas Ubuntu is fundamentally relational and communal, much of Western philosophy (especially since the Enlightenment) has been characterized by individualism and rationalism.

The section below highlights key differences between Ubuntu and Western philosophy on several dimensions:

View of Personhood

• Ubuntu > Relational Personhood: Defines the person through relationships with others. A person becomes a true “self” only in the context of community (“I am because we are”) . Individual identity is interwoven with social bonds. The highest aim is to fully realize one’s humanity by connecting with and contributing to others .

• Western > Autonomous Individual: Defines the person as an independent, self-sufficient entity endowed with reason. Emphasis on individual identity and autonomy (“I think, therefore I am”) . Personal fulfillment and identity are often seen as independent of others, rooted in individual traits or achievements.

Individual vs Community

• Ubuntu > Community-Centric: Prioritises the community’s well-being over strictly individual interests. Rights and responsibilities are viewed in communal terms – one’s duty is to uphold harmony and support others. Society is seen as a family where each member’s actions affect the whole. Personal freedoms are important but are exercised with regard to communal impact . Ubuntu holds that the community and the individual are mutually sustaining (neither exists in isolation).

• Western > Individual-Centric: Places high value on individual rights, freedoms, and personal goals. Western liberal traditions often treat society as a collection of individuals, each with personal rights that should not be infringed. The community is often an aggregation of individuals rather than an organism in itself. Individual achievement and independence are frequently celebrated, and social obligations are formalized through contracts or laws rather than inherent duties.

Basis of Morality

• Ubuntu > Ethic of Care and Harmony: Morality is rooted in maintaining relationships, empathy, and reciprocal care. An action is good if it strengthens the community or upholds human dignity; it is wrong if it causes discord or dehumanizes others . Ubuntu ethics emphasize virtues like compassion, generosity, and forgiveness. Justice is restorative – seeking to heal breaches in relationships and reintegrate offenders . Ethical decisions consider their impact on the collective, with the aim of “shared humanity” and mutual flourishing.

• Western > Ethic of Rights and Rules: Morality often framed in terms of abstract principles (e.g. Kantian duty, utilitarian calculus) or individual rights. An action is good if it respects rights or follows universal rules; wrong if it violates them. Western ethics tend to prioritize justice as retributive or distributive – enforcing rules, punishing wrongdoing to uphold law and individual rights. Virtues are often individual (integrity, courage) rather than relational. While Western thought certainly values compassion, its moral philosophy traditionally focuses on rational justification of moral rules (e.g. social contract, categorical imperative) more than on communal harmony per se.

Role of Rationality vs Relationality

• Ubuntu > Relational Understanding: Ubuntu acknowledges reason but gives primacy to relational wisdom – understanding context, emotions, and human connections. Knowledge is often seen as something that is shared by the community (*“it takes a village” to understand and decide) and guided by collective experience. Decision-making may integrate storytelling, consensus, and empathy. Rational thought is tempered by the need to preserve relationships and communal values . In Ubuntu, being fully human involves more than intellect; it requires ubuntu (humaneness) which includes compassion and social consciousness.

• Western > Rationalist Emphasis: Western philosophy, especially since Descartes and the Enlightenment, has often elevated rationality as the defining human trait . To be a person is to be a rational, thinking agent. Knowledge and truth are pursued through empirical science and logical reasoning, sometimes with the assumption that objective truth can be found independent of context . Emotions or relational contexts were traditionally viewed as secondary. Western thought has historically sought to “master nature by understanding its laws” , reflecting an orientation towards analytical and instrumental reason. Recent Western philosophies (e.g. feminist ethics of care, communitarianism) do challenge this, but the mainstream legacy is heavily rational-individualist.

Social Responsibility

• Ubuntu > Collective Responsibility: Ubuntu imbues a strong sense of obligation to others. Helping others is a natural duty, not optional charity. Those with means or talent are expected to use them for the community’s benefit. The success of one is success of all, and the hardship of one is shared by all. For example, wealth in an Ubuntu context might be circulated – one’s extended family or community should also prosper. Social support networks (family, neighbors, clan) are very active, stepping in where individuals struggle. Ethical behavior includes generosity and hospitality as standard, and selfish accumulation is viewed negatively. In Ubuntu thinking, freedom is balanced with responsibility to care for the vulnerable.

• Western > Individual Responsibility: In Western contexts, social responsibility is often framed in terms of individual choice or formal obligation (e.g. paying taxes, following laws). There is a strong notion of personal responsibility for one’s own life (one should “pull oneself up by the bootstraps”), and helping others can be seen as a voluntary act of charity or a matter of personal morals rather than a communal mandate. While Western societies do have communal support (government welfare, philanthropy), these are frequently institutional or secondary to the market and individual effort. The idea of being one’s “brother’s keeper” is present but not as universally expected as in Ubuntu. Individual rights (like property rights) sometimes take precedence over collective welfare, which can lead to greater acceptance of inequality as a byproduct of personal freedom.

Note: The Western tradition is diverse, and not all Western philosophies prioritise individualism or rationality to the same degree.

There are Western communitarian thinkers and Eastern philosophies that also emphasise community and relationality. However, the comparison above highlights general tendencies of modern Western philosophy (especially European Enlightenment and liberal thought) versus Ubuntu.

Ubuntu offers a more holistically relational approach: it does not deny individuality, but it situates the individual firmly within the web of community. As Ubuntu scholar Michael Eze points out, this worldview “does not need to generate an oppressive structure, where the individual loses his or her autonomy in an attempt to maintain a relationship with an ‘other’.

Instead, Ubuntu seeks a balance where individual uniqueness is acknowledged through and alongside our duties to each other . Similarly, while Western thought prizes autonomy, many Western societies recognize the importance of community – just not to the extent of making it the foundational principle of identity as Ubuntu does.

Conclusion

The philosophy of Ubuntu offers profound insight into an alternative way of understanding self and society. It teaches that our humanity is mutually dependent – that by uplifting others, we all rise, and by harming others, we all fall.

Historically born from African communal life, Ubuntu has proven adaptable and relevant to modern challenges, from healing divided nations to informing ethical frameworks in fields like social work and conflict resolution. Its core message of interconnectedness and compassion stands in contrast to the more individualistic currents of

Western thought, yet it complements universal ideals of human rights and dignity by grounding them in empathy and communal responsibility.

In today’s world, the wisdom of Ubuntu –

serves as a reminder that global problems like inequality, injustice, and alienation can be addressed by rekindling our sense of community and shared destiny.

Western philosophy’s emphasis on individual rights and rationality has led to great advancements in law, science, and personal freedom; Ubuntu adds to this a vital emphasis on belonging, care, and moral unity.

Both perspectives together encourage a society that values each person’s freedom and recognizes our obligations to one another. In the end, Ubuntu invites us to envision a humanity where the success of the individual and the flourishing of the community are one and the same – a vision as urgent today as ever.

Sources:

• Michael Onyebuchi Eze, “I am because you are,” UNESCO Courier (2018) .

• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Hunhu/Ubuntu in the Traditional Thought of Southern Africa.” .

• J. S. Mbiti, African Religions and Philosophy (1969), quoted in  .

• Desmond Tutu, No Future Without Forgiveness (1999), quoted in  .

• Nelson Mandela, interview on Ubuntu (2006), quoted in  .

• Stanlake & Tommie Samkange, Hunhuism or Ubuntuism: A Zimbabwe Indigenous Political Philosophy (1980), summarized in  .

• Thaddeus Metz, “The African Ethic of Ubuntu,” 1000-Word Philosophy (2019) .

• Sabelo Mhlambi, Q&A on Ubuntu Ethics, People + AI Research, Medium (2020) .

• Ubuntu as human flourishing? van Stam & van Oosterhout (2019), SciELO Journal .

• Wikipedia, “Ubuntu philosophy,” (various definitions and examples) .